Proctor compaction test
The Proctor compaction test and the related modified Proctor compaction test, named for engineer Ralph R. Proctor (1933), are tests to determine the maximum practically-achievable density of soils and aggregates, and are frequently used in geotechnical engineering.
The test consists of compacting the soil or aggregate to be tested into a standard mould using a standardized compactive energy at several different levels of moisture content. The maximum dry density and optimum moisture content is determined from the results of the test.
Soil in place is tested for in-place dry bulk density, and the result is divided by the maximum dry density to obtain a relative compaction for the soil in place.
History and its origin
Proctor's fascination with geotechnical engineering began when taking his undergraduate studies at University of California, Berkeley. He was interested in the publications of Sir Alec Skempton and his ideas on in situ behavior of natural clays. Skempton formulated concepts and porous water coefficients that are still widely used today. It was Proctor’s idea to take this concept a step further and formulate his own experimental conclusions to determine a solution for the in situ behaviors of clay and ground soils that cause it to be unsuitable for construction. His idea, which was later adopted and expounded upon by Skempton, involved the compaction of the soil to establish the maximum practically-achievable density of soils and aggregates (the "practically" stresses how the value is found experimentally and not theoretically).
In the early 1930s, he finally created a solution for determining the maximum density of soils. He found that in a controlled environment (or within a control volume), the soil could be compacted to the point where the air could be completely removed, simulating the effects of a soil in situ conditions. From this, the dry density could be determined by simply measuring the weight of the soil before and after compaction, calculating the moisture content, and furthermore calculating the dry density. Ralph R. Proctor went on to teach at the University of Arkansas.
Soil compaction
Compaction is the process of increasing the bulk density of a soil or aggregate by driving out air. For any soil, for a given amount of compactive effort, the density obtained depends on the moisture content. At very high moisture contents, the maximum dry density is achieved when the soil is compacted to nearly saturation, where (almost) all the air is driven out. At low moisture contents, the soil particles interfere with each other; addition of some moisture will allow greater bulk densities, with a peak density where this effect begins to be counteracted by the saturation of the soil.
Different tests
The original Proctor test, ASTM D698 / AASHTO T99, uses a 4-inch diameter mold which holds 1/30th cubic foot of soil, and calls for compaction of three separate lifts of soil using 25 blows by a 5.5 lb hammer falling 12 inches, for a compactive effort of 12,400 ft-lbf/ft³. The "Modified Proctor" test, ASTM D1557 / AASHTO T180, uses the same mold, but uses a 10 lb. hammer falling through 18 inches, with 25 blows on each of five lifts, for a compactive effort of about 56,000 ft-lbf/ft³. Both tests allow the use of a larger mold, 6 inches in diameter and holding 1/13.333 ft³, if the soil or aggregate contains too large a proportion of gravel-sized particles to allow repeatability with the 4-inch mold. To ensure the same compactive effort, the number of blows per lift is increased to 56.
The California Department of Transportation has developed a similar test, California Test 216, which measures the maximum wet density, and controls the compactive effort based on the weight, not the volume, of the test sample. The primary advantage of this test is that maximum density test results are available sooner, as evaporation of the compacted sample is not necessary.
There is also a test (ASTM D4253) which uses a vibrating table using standard vibrations for a standard time to densify the soil. This test method prevents particle breakage, but is only usable for granular soils. The test method also includes a method to determine the minimum density of the soil; density of soils in place are compared against the maximum and minimum to obtain a relative density.
Friday, 23 January 2009
Thursday, 22 January 2009
Bridging by Segmental Box Girder
Bridging by Segmental Box Girder
SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDERS SYSTEM
Introduction.
Segmental box girders (segments) system is used for building superstructure for bridges / other structure in replacement of conventional construction via pre-cast beams and cast-in-situ decks. Segments will be pre-cast at another location preferably at outskirts of city. New setup of casting shall be done specifically to carry out the segments casting works. Segments are cast using specific moulds as the shape and dimension are also specific. Moulds may be made out of cut and weld steel sections and other accessories to complete the moulds. The cast segments later shall be brought to site and erected at specific location via launching girder system (or other method) by continue joining segments to each other to form the completed decks in between of two piers. Post tensioning in form of stressed groups of strand wires shall keep the segments together and provide the strength required to support the required loading on the deck. Further works can then be carried out as per requirement prior opening to users.
Advantages of using segmental box girders system (comparing to conventional method)
The segments system reduces the environmental disturbance compare to the conventional method by carrying out the concreting works further away from the construction site where is usually located at city centers.
Quality can be maintained since the casting of segments shall be carried out at control environment as compared to carry out at site.
Aesthetic of using segments system is better due specific shape can be cast if so required by clients.
Since segmental box girders are pre-cast elements, casting of segments can proceeds while piling works, pile-caps, piers, pier caps construction are proceedings at site. Therefore, shorter duration of construction is achievable.
Corrosion of Steel In Concrete
What is Corrosion of Steel?
ASTM terminology (G 15) defines corrosion as “the chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of the material and its properties.” For steel embedded in concrete, corrosion results in the formation of rust which has two to four times the volume of the original steel and none of the good mechanical properties. Corrosion also produces pits or holes in the surface of reinforcing steel, reducing strength capacity as a result of the reduced cross-sectional area.
Why is Corrosion of Steel a Concern?
Reinforced concrete uses steel to provide the tensile properties that are needed in structural concrete. It prevents the failure of concrete structures which are subjected to tensile and flexural stresses due to traffic, winds, dead loads, and thermal cycling. However, when reinforcement corrodes, the formation of rust leads to a loss of bond between the steel and the concrete and subsequently delamination and spalling. If left unchecked, the integrity of the structure can be affected. Reduction in the cross sectional area of steel reduces its strength capacity. This is especially detrimental to the performance of tensioned strands in pre-stressed concrete.
Why Does Steel in Concrete Corrode?
Steel in concrete is usually in a non-corroding, passive condition. However, steel reinforced concrete is often used in severe environments where sea water or deicing salts are present. When chloride moves into the concrete, it disrupts the passive layer protecting the steel, causing it to rust and pit.
Carbonation of concrete is another cause of steel corrosion. When concrete carbonates to the level of the steel rebar the normally alkaline environment, which protects steel from corrosion, is replaced by a more neutral environment. Under these conditions the steel is not passive and rapid corrosion begins. The rate of corrosion due to carbonated concrete cover is slower than chloride-induced corrosion.
Occasionally, a lack of oxygen surrounding the steel rebar will cause the metal to dissolve, leaving a low pH liquid.
How to Prevent Corrosion.
Quality Concrete and Concrete Practices The first defense against corrosion of steel in concrete is quality concrete and sufficient concrete cover over the reinforcing bars. Quality concrete has a water-to-cementitious material ratio (w/c) that is low enough to slow down the penetration of chloride salts and the development of carbonation. The w/c ratio should be less than 0.50 to slow the rate of carbonation and less than 0.40 to minimize chloride penetration. Concretes with low w/c ratios can be produced by (1) increasing the cement content; (2) reducing the water content by using water reducers and superplasticizers; or (3) by using larger amounts of fly ash, slag, or other cementitious materials. Additionally, the use of concrete ingredients containing chlorides should be limited. The AI 318 Building Code provides limits on the maximum amount of soluble chlorides in the concrete mix.
Another ingredient for good quality concrete is air entrainment. It is necessary to protect the concrete from freezing and thawing damage. Air entrainment also reduces bleeding and the corresponding increased permeability due to the bleed channels. Spalling and scaling can accelerate corrosion damage of the embedded reinforcing bars. Proper scheduling of finishing operations is needed to ensure that the concrete does not scale, spall, or crack excessively.
The correct amount of steel will help keep cracks tight. ACI 224 helps the design engineer to minimize the formation of cracks that could be detrimental to embedded steel. In general, the maximum allowable crack widths are 0.007 inch in deicing salt environments and 0.006 inch in marine environments.
Adequate cover over reinforcing steel is also an important factor. Chloride penetration and carbonation will occur in the outer surface of even low permeability concretes. Increasing the cover will delay the onset of corrosion. For example, the time for chloride ions to reach a steel rebar at 2 inches from the surface is four times that with a 1 inch cover. ACI 318 recommends a minimum of 1.5 inches of cover for most structures, and increases it to 2 inches of cover for protection from deicing salts. ACI 357 recommends 2.5 inches of minimum cover in marine environments. Larger aggregates require more cover. For aggregates greater than ¾ inch, a rule of thumb is to add to the nominal maximum aggregate size ¾ inch of cover for deicing salt exposure, or 1 – ¾ inch of cover for marine exposure. For example, concrete with 1 inch aggregate in a marine exposure should have a 2 – ¾ inch minimum cover.
The concrete must be adequately consolidated and cured. Moist curing for a minimum of seven days to 70°F is needed for concrete with a 0.40 w/c ratio, whereas six months is needed for a 0.60 w/c ratio. Numerous studies show that concrete porosity is reduced significantly with increased curing times and, correspondingly, corrosion resistance is improved.
Modified Concretes and Corrosion Protection Systems – Increased corrosion resistance can also come about by the use of concrete additives. Silica fume, fly ash, and blast-furnace slag reduce the permeability of the concrete to the penetration of chloride ions. Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium nitrite, act to prevent corrosion in the presence of chloride ions. In all cases, they are added to quality concrete at w/c less than or equal to 0.45.
Water repellents may reduce the ingress of moisture and chlorides to a limited extent. However, ACI 222 indicates that these are not effective in providing long-term protection. Since good quality concrete already has a low permeability, the additional benefits of water repellents are not as significant.
Other protection techniques include protective membranes, cathodic protection, epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, and concrete sealers (if reapplied every four to five years).
How To Limit Corrosion
Use good quality concrete air-entrained with a w/c of 0.40 or less.
Use a minimum concrete cover of 1.5 inches and at least 0.75 inch larger than the nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
Increase the minimum cover to 2 inches for deicing salt exposure and to 2.5 inches for marine exposure.
Ensure that the concrete is adequately cured.
Use fly ash, blast-furnace, slag, or silica fume and/or a proven corrosion inhibitor.
ASTM terminology (G 15) defines corrosion as “the chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of the material and its properties.” For steel embedded in concrete, corrosion results in the formation of rust which has two to four times the volume of the original steel and none of the good mechanical properties. Corrosion also produces pits or holes in the surface of reinforcing steel, reducing strength capacity as a result of the reduced cross-sectional area.
Why is Corrosion of Steel a Concern?
Reinforced concrete uses steel to provide the tensile properties that are needed in structural concrete. It prevents the failure of concrete structures which are subjected to tensile and flexural stresses due to traffic, winds, dead loads, and thermal cycling. However, when reinforcement corrodes, the formation of rust leads to a loss of bond between the steel and the concrete and subsequently delamination and spalling. If left unchecked, the integrity of the structure can be affected. Reduction in the cross sectional area of steel reduces its strength capacity. This is especially detrimental to the performance of tensioned strands in pre-stressed concrete.
Why Does Steel in Concrete Corrode?
Steel in concrete is usually in a non-corroding, passive condition. However, steel reinforced concrete is often used in severe environments where sea water or deicing salts are present. When chloride moves into the concrete, it disrupts the passive layer protecting the steel, causing it to rust and pit.
Carbonation of concrete is another cause of steel corrosion. When concrete carbonates to the level of the steel rebar the normally alkaline environment, which protects steel from corrosion, is replaced by a more neutral environment. Under these conditions the steel is not passive and rapid corrosion begins. The rate of corrosion due to carbonated concrete cover is slower than chloride-induced corrosion.
Occasionally, a lack of oxygen surrounding the steel rebar will cause the metal to dissolve, leaving a low pH liquid.
How to Prevent Corrosion.
Quality Concrete and Concrete Practices The first defense against corrosion of steel in concrete is quality concrete and sufficient concrete cover over the reinforcing bars. Quality concrete has a water-to-cementitious material ratio (w/c) that is low enough to slow down the penetration of chloride salts and the development of carbonation. The w/c ratio should be less than 0.50 to slow the rate of carbonation and less than 0.40 to minimize chloride penetration. Concretes with low w/c ratios can be produced by (1) increasing the cement content; (2) reducing the water content by using water reducers and superplasticizers; or (3) by using larger amounts of fly ash, slag, or other cementitious materials. Additionally, the use of concrete ingredients containing chlorides should be limited. The AI 318 Building Code provides limits on the maximum amount of soluble chlorides in the concrete mix.
Another ingredient for good quality concrete is air entrainment. It is necessary to protect the concrete from freezing and thawing damage. Air entrainment also reduces bleeding and the corresponding increased permeability due to the bleed channels. Spalling and scaling can accelerate corrosion damage of the embedded reinforcing bars. Proper scheduling of finishing operations is needed to ensure that the concrete does not scale, spall, or crack excessively.
The correct amount of steel will help keep cracks tight. ACI 224 helps the design engineer to minimize the formation of cracks that could be detrimental to embedded steel. In general, the maximum allowable crack widths are 0.007 inch in deicing salt environments and 0.006 inch in marine environments.
Adequate cover over reinforcing steel is also an important factor. Chloride penetration and carbonation will occur in the outer surface of even low permeability concretes. Increasing the cover will delay the onset of corrosion. For example, the time for chloride ions to reach a steel rebar at 2 inches from the surface is four times that with a 1 inch cover. ACI 318 recommends a minimum of 1.5 inches of cover for most structures, and increases it to 2 inches of cover for protection from deicing salts. ACI 357 recommends 2.5 inches of minimum cover in marine environments. Larger aggregates require more cover. For aggregates greater than ¾ inch, a rule of thumb is to add to the nominal maximum aggregate size ¾ inch of cover for deicing salt exposure, or 1 – ¾ inch of cover for marine exposure. For example, concrete with 1 inch aggregate in a marine exposure should have a 2 – ¾ inch minimum cover.
The concrete must be adequately consolidated and cured. Moist curing for a minimum of seven days to 70°F is needed for concrete with a 0.40 w/c ratio, whereas six months is needed for a 0.60 w/c ratio. Numerous studies show that concrete porosity is reduced significantly with increased curing times and, correspondingly, corrosion resistance is improved.
Modified Concretes and Corrosion Protection Systems – Increased corrosion resistance can also come about by the use of concrete additives. Silica fume, fly ash, and blast-furnace slag reduce the permeability of the concrete to the penetration of chloride ions. Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium nitrite, act to prevent corrosion in the presence of chloride ions. In all cases, they are added to quality concrete at w/c less than or equal to 0.45.
Water repellents may reduce the ingress of moisture and chlorides to a limited extent. However, ACI 222 indicates that these are not effective in providing long-term protection. Since good quality concrete already has a low permeability, the additional benefits of water repellents are not as significant.
Other protection techniques include protective membranes, cathodic protection, epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, and concrete sealers (if reapplied every four to five years).
How To Limit Corrosion
Use good quality concrete air-entrained with a w/c of 0.40 or less.
Use a minimum concrete cover of 1.5 inches and at least 0.75 inch larger than the nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
Increase the minimum cover to 2 inches for deicing salt exposure and to 2.5 inches for marine exposure.
Ensure that the concrete is adequately cured.
Use fly ash, blast-furnace, slag, or silica fume and/or a proven corrosion inhibitor.
Wednesday, 21 January 2009
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